The Church held councils to resolve issues when less formal
dialogue failed to produce a consensus. Most councils were local,
although in some cases their decrees gained wide acceptance (such as
the Seven Ecumenical Councils). The first council of the
Church was held by the Apostles in Jerusalem during the first century
(refer to Acts 6:1-7).
The seven General Councils of the entire Christian
Church are known as the Ecumenical Councils. They cover the period
between 325-757 AD and their decisions are at the foundation of
Christian doctrine accepted by both the Eastern and Western segments
of the Christian Church. The decisions of these Ecumenical Councils
were made under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, as promised by Jesus
Christ to His Apostles.
At these Ecumenical Councils many Canons, or laws
governing the administration of the Church, were composed.
A detailed
listing of all of these Canons is available
The Western Church accepts subsequent Councils as
Ecumenical, that were convened and attended only by the authorities
and delegates of the Roman Church. These Councils, the last of which
is the second Vatican Council (1962-1965), are not accepted by the
Orthodox Church as bearing either the validity or the authority that
the seven truly Ecumenical Councils possessed; and for that matter;
no decisions of these Roman Catholic Councils have any bearing on the
Orthodox Church. For better appreciating the reasons for being
convened and the decisions reached, all seven Ecumenical Councils are
presented in sequence rather than in alphabetical order.
The First Ecumenical Council was summoned by Emperor Constantine
the Great in 325, May 20th. The Council assembled at Niceea in the
province of Bithynia of Asia Minor and was formally opened by
Constantine himself. The Council passed 20 canons including the
Nicene Creed (described below), the Canon of Holy Scripture (Holy
Bible), and established the celebration of Pascha (Easter).
The main reason for its being called was the Arian
controversy. Arius, a presbyter (priest) from Alexandria, held that
Jesus Christ was created by God and denying Christ's divinity. Arius
argued that if Jesus was born, then there was time when He did not
exist; and if He became God, then there was time when He was not.
Arius' original intent was to attack another heretical teaching by
which the three persons of the Godhead were confused
(Sabellianism).
A number of bishops followed Arius, and the Church went
into her first and perhaps deepest division of faith. Up to then,
statements of faith were incorporated into Creeds recited by a
candidate to Baptism. A baptismal Creed representing Arianism was
submitted to the Council by Eusebios of Nicomedia but was at once
rejected. Another Creed, representing the baptismal Creed of
Jerusalem, was finally accepted with the addition of the very
important term 'homoousios', meaning of the 'same substance'. Thus,
the view that Christ was of the 'same substance' with the Father was
received as orthodox. This Creed is known as the Nicene Creed, which
read:
We (I) believe in one God. The Father
Almighty. Maker of heaven and earth, and of all things visible and
invisible.
And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the only begotten,
begotten of the Father before all ages. Light of Light; true God of
true God; begotten not made; of one essence with the Father, by whom
all things were made.
Who for us men and for our salvation came down from heaven, and was
incarnate of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary, and became man.
And He was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate, and suffered, and
was buried.
And the third day He rose again according to the Scriptures.
And ascended into heaven, and sits at the right hand of the Father;
and he shall come again with glory to judge the living and the dead;
whose Kingdom shall have no end.
The Second Ecumenical Council was convened by Emperor Theodosius I
at Constantinople in 381, which was attended by 150 bishops.
Theodosius proved to be a champion of the orthodox faith, and his
intent in calling this Council was to completely eradicate Arianism,
and condemn Macedonios and Apollinarianism, by establishing the
teaching on the unity of the Holy Trinity and the complete manhood in
Christ.
Macedonius taught that the Holy Spirit was not a
person ('hypostasis'), but simply a power ('dynamic') of God.
Therefore concluding that the Holy Spirit was inferior to the Father
and the Son. The Council condemned Macedonius' teaching and defined
the doctrine of the Holy Trinity. This doctrine decrees that there is
'one God in three hypostases'; proclaiming that the Holy Spirit is
fully God, equal to the Father and the Son, and of one essence with
them. This became the base of the Christian faith.
The Nicene
Creed, received by the
First Ecumenical Council, was then supplemented with
five canons setting forth doctrines on the Holy Spirit, the Church,
the Sacraments, resurrection of the dead and life of the age to come:
which read:
And (We believe) in the Holy Spirit, the
Lord, the Giver of Life, who proceeds from the Father, Who with the
Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified; Who spoke by
the Prophets.
In One Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic Church.
I acknowledge One Baptism for the remission of sins.
I look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to
come. Amen.
The third Council was convened at Ephesus in 431 by Emperor
Theodosius. The Council condemned the doctrines of Nestorios,
Archbishop of Constantinople, who taught that there were two separate
persons in the Incarnate Christ, the one Divine and the other
Human.
Nestorios over-emphasising the human nature of Christ at
the expense of the divine, teaching that the Virgin Mary gave birth
to a man (Jesus Christ), and not God (the 'Logos' and Son of God).
The Logos (or 'Word') only dwelled in Christ, as in a Temple. Christ,
therefore, was only the Theophoros or the 'Bearer of God'. This was
directly opposite to the orthodox doctrine by which the Incarnate
Christ was a single Person, at once God and Man.
One of the high points of Nestorios' teaching was the
rejection of the name 'Theotokos' (bearer of God) for the Virgin
Mary. Nestorios called the Virgin Mary Christotokos (bearer of
Christ) rather than Theotokos.
Hence, giving the name to the 'Christological controversies'.
The Council reiterated the Church's teaching that Our
Lord Jesus Christ is one person, not two separate 'people'. The
Council decreed that Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God (Logos), is
perfect God and perfect Man with a rational soul and body. The union
of the two natures of Christ took place in such a fashion that one
did not disturb the other. The Council established the name
'Theotokos' in the liturgical and theological usage of the Church,
and affirmed the Nicene-Constantionopolitan Creed forbidding any
addition or deletion to it.
Two hundred bishops attended this Council among whom St.
Cyril of Alexandria who proved to be the orthodox champion and the
force behind the condemnation and anathematising of Nestorios.
This Council was convened at Chalcedon, on the Asian side of
Constantinople, by Emperor Marcian and his wife Poulcheria in 451. It
had to deal with another controversy about the Person of Christ.
Eutyches, an Archimandrite in Constantinople, held that the human
(less perfect) nature of Christ had been completely absorbed by His
divine nature and thus the two had been confounded into one. Thus,
after this union, Eutyches held, there was only one nature in Christ.
Hence his heresy was called 'monophysitisim' (of one nature). The
Council condemned this teaching and affirmed that there were two
perfect natures in the one Person of Christ unified 'unconfusedly,
unchangeably, indivisibly, and inseparably'.
The Council was attended by 650 bishops. The dogmatic
decisions of this Council were expressed by a statement of faith
since then called the Chalcedonian Definition. Among other important
enactments there was one that the Western Church did not accept:
canon 28 by which the Archbishop of Constantinople was given the
title of Patriarch thus reiterating the decision of the
Second Ecumenical Council by which the Bishop of
Constantinople was given honourary precedence over all other
Churches, save that of Rome. Canon 28 of this Council further
recognised to the Archbishop of Constantinople extensive
administrative rights over a number of provinces around
Constantinople and thus made him a Patriarch. This was rejected in
the West on the excuse 'that the interests of the older Eastern
Patriarchates should be protected'.
Fifth Ecumenical Council
The Fifth Ecumenical Council met in Constantinople in 553 and was
convoked by Emperor Justinian I. The Monophysite controversy
continued unabated even after the condemnation of Eutyches and the
issuing of the Chalcedonian Statement of Faith.
Personal quarrels among bishops and the interference of
the palace in theological and ecclesiastical matters helped to create
an unfortunate situation in the Church that even Justinian's great
authority and influence failed to correct.
Justinian favoured at first the Monophysites but later
sided with the formal Orthodox view against it. However, empress
Theodora encouraged the Monophysites to create new problems by
stirring up a new controversy regarding the theological positions of
three distinguished theologians already dead for a century, these
were the three Antiochian bishops and renowned teachers, Theodore of
Mopsuestia, Theodoret of Cyrus, and Ibas of Edessa. The accusation
was that the writings of all three, tainted with Nestorianism, had
been condemned by the Third Ecumenical Council .
The Monophysite-accusers wished all three to be
condemned even though they were dead. Justinian was compelled by the
fury of the controversy to call this Fifth Ecumenical Council in
Constantinople which opened on May 5, 553 and was presided over by
the Patriarch of Constantinople Eutychios.
One hundred sixty five bishops attended, and the
writings of the three famous teachers were condemned and they
themselves were anathematised. This decision was not easily accepted
in the West. During the Council a quarrel erupted between Eastern and
Western bishops as to anathematising the dead, and for a time the
name of the Pope was erased from the diptychs. But as a result of
Justinian's efforts, a permanent rupture between East and West was
prevented.
The Council confirmed the Church's teaching on the dual
nature of Christ, and reaffirmed that He is both Truly God and Truly
Man. Emperor Justinian himself confessed his Orthodox faith in a form
of the famous Church hymn "Only begotten Son and Word of God" which
is sung during the Divine Liturgy.
The Sixth Ecumenical Council met in Constantinople in 680 and was
convened by Emperor Constantine IV (Pogonatos) and was attended by
170 bishops.
Monothelitism (one will), in spite of the decisions of
the Fifth Ecumenical Council and in spite of the strict laws and
other repressive measures against it by subsequent emperors,
continued to be a serious disturbance to both Church and State. It
actually was used as the foundation for the creation of new and
independent Churches such as the Armenian, Abyssinian, and
others.
As a result of the reconciliatory endeavours of Emperor
Herakleios for the purpose of bringing back the Armenians to the
Orthodox Church, a new teaching in regard to the Person of Christ
began to spread. By it, there is only one will in the God-man Christ.
Hence this teaching was called 'monothelitism' and was originally
proposed as a midpoint between Monothelitism and Orthodoxy designed
to bring back the Monophysites at a time the Byzantine empire was
threatened by the Persians and later by the Mohammedans.
Both the Patriarch of Constantinople Sergios and Pope
Honorius accepted the Emperor's formula by which there were two
natures in Christ but only one mode of 'activity'. But in a statement
of doctrine, the Pope used the unfortunate expression 'of one will'
in Christ which from that point on replaced the expedient 'one
energy' agreed upon by both parties.
After some tumultuous developments, the monotheletic
controversy was finally resolved by the Sixth Ecumenical Council.
Monothelitism was condemned together with its adherents.
The Council proclaimed that "Christ had two natures with
two activities: as God working miracles, rising from the dead and
ascending into heaven; as Man, performing the ordinary acts of daily
life. Each nature exercises its own free will". Christ's divine
nature had a specific task to perform and so did His human, without
being confused nor subjected to any change or working against each
other. "The two distinct natures and related to them activities were
mystically united in the one Divine Person of our Lord and Saviour
Jesus Christ".
This is not the Seventh Ecumenical Council but rather a supplement
to the Fifth and Sixth Ecumenical Councils. It met in Constantinople
in the hall under the great dome (Trullos) of the Imperial Palace.
Hence it is known as the Trullan Synod while in Greek it is known as
the 5th-6th where from the Latin Quinisext came.
The Council was called by Justinian II in 692. Both the
Fifth and Sixth Ecumenical Councils fully occupied their time with
the Christological problem and issued no canons pertaining to
ecclesiastical government and order. Actually, the Quinisext may be
considered to be the continuation of all the preceding Ecumenical
Councils inasmuch as by its 2nd canon it received and ratified all of
their canons and decisions. It also ratified the so-called
"Eighty-five Apostolic Canons", the canons of local synods, and the
most important of the canons of the principal Fathers of the Church,
thus empowering all of them with Ecumenical authority.
The disciplinary canons of the Quinisext, however, were
not accepted by the Pope, and even though most of them were not
completely observed in the East, they contributed appreciably to the
widening of differences between East and West. For example, canons
13, 30, and 48 relating to the marital status of the clergy, others
regulating the age of ordination, and still others relating to
canonical impediments to matrimony, were contrary to already
established different practices in the West that the Roman See did
not wish to change on directives from the Quinisext Council. However,
the same Council tabulated by its 6th canon a shaky practice in the
East by which marriage could not be contracted after one had been
ordained in any one of the three ranks of priesthood. Thus, and for
the first time, priesthood as a sacrament was accorded precedence and
superiority over the sacrament of matrimony. And though there is no
dogmatical justification for this doctrinal demoting of the sacrament
of matrimony, the prohibition of marriage after ordination continues
in the Orthodox Church to this day.
This Council dealt predominantly with the controversy regarding
icons and their place in Orthodox worship. It was convened in Niceea
in 787 by Empress Irene at the request of Thrasios, Patriarch of
Constantinople. The Council was attended by 367 bishops.
Almost a century before this, the iconoclastic
controversy had once more shaken the foundations of both Church and
State in the Byzantine empire. Excessive religious respect and the
ascribed miracles to icons by some members of society, approached the
point of worship (due only to God) and idolatry. This instigated
excesses at the other extreme by which icons were completely taken
out of the liturgical life of the Church by the Iconoclasts. The
Iconophilles, on the other-hand, believed that icons served to
preserve the doctrinal teachings of the Church; they considered icons
to be man's dynamic way of expressing the divine through art and
beauty.
The Council decided on a doctrine by which icons should
be venerated but not worshipped. In answering the Empress' invitation
to the Council, Pope Hadrian replied with a letter in which he also
held the position of extending veneration to icons but not worship,
the last befitting only God.
The decree of the Council for restoring icons to
churches added an important clause which still stands at the
foundation of the rationale for using and venerating icons in the
Orthodox Church to this very day: "We define that the holy icons,
whether in colour, mosaic, or some other material, should be
exhibited in the holy churches of God, on the sacred vessels and
liturgical vestments, on the walls, furnishings, and in houses and
along the roads, namely the icons of our Lord God and Saviour Jesus
Christ, that of our Lady the Theotokos, those of the venerable angels
and those of all saintly people. Whenever these representations are
contemplated, they will cause those who look at them to commemorate
and love their prototype. We define also that they should be kissed
and that they are an object of veneration and honour (timitiki
proskynisis), but not of real worship (latreia), which is reserved
for Him Who is the subject of our faith and is proper for the divine
nature. The veneration accorded to an icon is in effect transmitted
to the prototype; he who venerates the icon, venerated in it the
reality for which it stands".
The Council issued also 22 canons relating to
administrative and disciplinary matters, condemning Simony
(ordination for payment), the election of bishops by secular
authority, and the erecting of mixed monasteries. However, and in
spite of the recognition of this Council by the Pope, Charlemagne
refused to recognise it not only as Ecumenical but altogether. He
disapproved of its decision for venerating the icons, and as a result
of his hostility, a synod at Frankfurt in 794 condemned the
veneration of icons and rejected the entire Council. And it was only
by the end of the 9th century that the Council was recognised in the
West but without its rules that were contrary to the established
practices of the Roman Church.
An Endemousa (Regional) Synod was called in
Constantinople in 843. Under Empress Theodora. The veneration of
icons was solemnly proclaimed at the St. Sophia's Cathedral. Monks
and clergy came in procession and restored the icons in their
rightful place. The day was called "Triumph of Orthodoxy." Since that
time, this event is commemorated yearly with a special service on the
first Sunday of Lent, the "Sunday of Orthodoxy".